We begin by showing that the fundamental elements of information processing in electronic and genetic systems are strikingly similar, and follow this theme through a review of efforts to create synthetic genetic circuits. We review the rapidly evolving efforts to analyze, model, simulate, and engineer genetic and biochemical information processing systems within living cells. This historical survey has a number of implications for modern palaeontological views of the nature and origin of species, including that the nature of species is a substantive (as opposed to a purely semantic) issue, likely to be decided empirically and not just theoretically, and that the roles of selection and isolation in the origin of species are likely diverse and complex. The nature of Darwin's ideas on these issues, which has remained controversial, is an epitome of the persistent complexity and difficulty of the questions involved. A critical survey of the history of thinking about the nature and origin of species indicates that answers to at least two of these three questions (the first and third) have been remarkably persistent in both palaeontological and neontological views over the past 250 years, and the range of answers to them has changed remarkably little.
The law of periodicity which has been enunciated at the atomic level holds equally well for the periodicity found in living organisms allowing predictions.Īlthough it has been variously defined and discussed, the ‘species problem’ in evolutionary palaeontology actually consists of at least three separate but closely related questions: (1) What are species in living organisms? (the ‘species nature problem’) (2) To what degree can ‘species’ as recognized in living organisms be recognized in the fossil record? (the ‘species recognition problem’) (3) To the degree that species can be so recognized, to what degree can species be studied as modern species are, that is, what can we learn about the origin and evolution of species from fossils that we could not otherwise learn? This can be called the ‘species study problem’. It is this DNA homology which allows the reappearance of the same pattern, in the most different organisms.
Also, vision, which appears in the simplest invertebrates as well as in humans results from the action of the same gene Pa圆. This is demonstrated by the formation of the placenta, which in plants and in humans, is decided by the same DNA sequences. The punctuated reappearance of a given property, which leads to periodicity, is based on its own evolution of DNA. Significant is that three of these properties do not start at the cell or the organism, as previously thought, but emerge already in crystals and minerals which have no genes, and where organization is decided by atomic and electronic interactions. Biological periodicity was established in the following properties: vision, regeneration, luminescence, flight, placenta, penis, plant carnivory and mental ability. This transformation process is guided by the establishment of periodicity, a phenomenon that can now be shown to start with elementary particles, to extend to atoms and macromolecules, and to occur equally among living organisms including humans. Now it is physics again, by using large accelerators of electrons and neutrons, that is transforming molecular biology into Atomic Biology. Physics led the way in the creation of Molecular Biology by employing X-ray crystallography in the elucidation of the atomic structure of proteins and DNA.
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